| Author | Title | Citation | Summary | Year |
| Scott Holwick |
Transnational Corporate Behavior and its Disparate and Unjust Effects on the Indigenous Cultures and the Environment of Developing Nations: Jota V. Texaco, a Case Study |
11 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 183 (Winter 2000) |
Once we were happy in our country and we were seldom hungry, for then the two-leggeds and the four-leggeds lived together like relatives, and there was plenty for them and for us. But the wasichus [whites] came, and they have made little islands for us and other little islands for the four-leggeds, and always these islands are becoming smaller, for... |
2000 |
| Charlotte M. Emery , First Lieutenant, Judge Advocate General's Corps, United States Army; J.D., University of Missouri-Kansas City, School of Law, 1999; B.A., Arizona State University, 1994. |
TRIBAL GOVERNMENT IN NORTH AMERICA: THE EVOLUTION OF TRADITION |
32 Urban Lawyer 315 (Spring, 2000) |
For years we have talked about encouraging Indians to exercise greater self-determination, but our progress has never been commensurate with our promises . These words ring as true today as when they were first spoken by President Richard M. Nixon in 1970. As part of his address to Congress, they were the beginning of what we now call the... |
2000 |
| Dean B. Suagee , James J. Havard |
Tribal Governments and the Protection of Watersheds and Wetlands in Indian Country |
13 Saint Thomas Law Review 35 (Fall, 2000) |
Over the last three decades a kind of partnership between the federal government and the states has been evolving in the environmental arena. This partnership reflects the principle that, under the U.S. Constitution, the federal government is vested by the Constitution with sovereignty in certain enumerated spheres of governmental activity, and... |
2000 |
| Lisa R. Hasday |
Tribal Immunity and Access for the Disabled |
109 Yale Law Journal 1199 (March, 2000) |
Self-sufficiency is a value with particular significance for both disabled people and Indian tribes, two historically disadvantaged groups. In Florida Paraplegic Ass'n v. Miccosukee Tribe of Indians, each of these two groups battled to preserve this important value for itself. The case considered whether the Florida Paraplegic Association and the... |
2000 |
| John Gibeaut |
Tribal Justice |
86-FEB ABA Journal 24 (February, 2000) |
The U.S. Interior and Treasury departments can continue on their own trying to clean up the mess they made of trust accounts held for 300,000 American Indians, but federal District Judge Royce C. Lamberth will have them on a short leash. In a Dec. 22 opinion, the judge concluded that the agencies breached their trust duties to the Indians and... |
2000 |
| Raymond Cross |
TRIBES AS RICH NATIONS |
79 Oregon Law Review 893 (Winter 2000) |
If you have understanding and heart, show only one. Both they will damn, if both you show together. Emancipating today's American Indian peoples requires a fundamental restructuring of the contemporary concept of tribal self-determination. Bound by their legal status as tribes, assigned to them by Supreme Court opinions now almost 200 years old,... |
2000 |
| Catherine A. O'Neill |
Variable Justice: Environmental Standards, Contaminated Fish, and "Acceptable" Risk to Native Peoples |
19 Stanford Environmental Law Journal L.J. 3 (January, 2000) |
I. Introduction. 5 A. The Conventional Understanding of the Harmful Effects of Contaminated Fish. 10 B. The Cultural Dimensions of the Harm to Pacific Northwest Peoples. 14 C. Quantitative Risk Assessment and Environmental Justice. 16 II. Risk Assessment. 19 A. Quantitative Risk Assessment: The Method. 21 1. Basic Components of Quantitative Risk... |
2000 |
| A. Jeffry Taylor. Esq. |
Vermont Native Myra Colby Bradwell: America's First Woman Lawyer |
26-JUN Vermont Bar Journal 13 (June, 2000) |
Myra Colby Bradwell had a problem. After years of study with her husband James in his Chicago law office, she passed the Illinois Bar Exam with honors in 1869. But the Illinois Supreme Court denied her admission on the grounds that, as a woman, she was unfit to practice law. In rejecting Bradwell's application, the Illinois Court noted that the... |
2000 |
| Alison Etheredge |
Viii. Native Americans |
30 Cumberland Law Review 344 (1999-2000) |
In Dawavendewa v. Salt River Project Agricultural Improvement and Power District the Ninth Circuit held that employment discrimination based on membership in a particular Native American tribe constitutes national origin discrimination. In this case of first impression, the Ninth Circuit also held that tribal discrimination does not fall within a... |
2000 |
| Anthony Peirson Xavier Bothwell |
We Live on Their Land: Implications of Long-ago Takings of Native American Indian Property |
6 Annual Survey of International and Comparative Law 175 (Spring, 2000) |
At the dawn of the white man's millenium, the drums of 15 million ghosts echo silently across fields and forests, mountains and deserts, lakes and rivers of once proud peoples. While American society aspires to realize more perfect justice in the twenty-first century, surviving members of great tribes, heirs of a continent, are the poorest of the... |
2000 |
| Pamela G. Levinson |
Will the Circle Be Unbroken? The Miami Circle Discovery and its Significance for Urban Evolution and Protection of Indigenous Culture |
13 Saint Thomas Law Review 283 (Fall, 2000) |
A mysterious, ancient stone circle carved into limestone bedrock discovered on a downtown Miami bayfront lot has set a legal precedent for the world. The unique formation known as the Miami Circle has been saved by the exercise of the ultimate power of government - eminent domain. Thus its relevance stretches beyond the local struggle to save one... |
2000 |
| Lisa F. Cook Gambler , Melissa E. Stephenson |
Winner, Best Appellate Brief in the 1998-99 Native American Law Student Association Moot Court Competition |
24 American Indian Law Review 197 (2000) |
I. Whether the Muscogee (Creek) Nation government, reorganized under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act (OIWA) maintains jurisdiction to promulgate regulations over lands within Nation territory when the territory has not been disestablished or diminished, and the health and welfare of the tribe is at stake. II. Whether the Muscogee (Creek) Nation... |
2000 |
| Christine Zuni Cruz |
[On The] Road Back In: Community Lawyering in Indigenous Communities |
5 Clinical Law Review 557 (Spring, 1999) |
As a communications major in film and broadcasting, I took a film making course which required the production of a super 8mm film with an accompanying soundtrack. The film I produced was based on the lyrics, You're my lawyer, you're my doctor, yeah, but somehow you forgot about me, from the song by Gil Scott Heron and Brian Jackson. These lyrics... |
1999 |
| Steve Russell , University of Texas |
A Black and White Issue: the Invisibility of American Indians in Racial Policy Discourse |
4 Georgetown Public Policy Review 129 (Spring, 1999) |
The President's Initiative on Race concluded little about American Indians, except that they are in dire circumstances. This article describes those circumstances and the difficulties that face policymakers in addressing Indian problems. Indians grappling with issues of economic development, education and internal democracy find themselves in a... |
1999 |
| Philip P. Frickey |
A Common Law for Our Age of Colonialism: the Judicial Divestiture of Indian Tribal Authority over Nonmembers |
109 Yale Law Journal L.J. 1 (October, 1999) |
I. Introduction. 3 II. The Basic Model of Tribal Sovereignty. 8 A. Foundational Premises. 8 B. The Fragility of These Principles in the Context of Non-Indians in Indian Country. 13 III. Divesting Tribal Territorial Sovereignty by Reducing the Territory. 17 IV. Divesting Tribal Territorial Sovereignty by Reducing the Sovereignty. 28 A. The... |
1999 |
| Philip P. Frickey |
A COMMON LAW FOR OUR AGE OF COLONIALISM: THE JUDICIAL DIVESTITURE OF INDIAN TRIBAL AUTHORITY OVER NONMEMBERS |
109 Yale Law Journal 1 (October, 1999) |
I. Introduction. 3 II. The Basic Model of Tribal Sovereignty. 8 A. Foundational Premises. 8 B. The Fragility of These Principles in the Context of Non-Indians in Indian Country. 13 III. Divesting Tribal Territorial Sovereignty by Reducing the Territory. 17 IV. Divesting Tribal Territorial Sovereignty by Reducing the Sovereignty. 28 A. The... |
1999 |
| Bryan J. Rose |
A Judicial Dilemma: Indian Religion, Indian Land, and the Religion Clauses |
7 Virginia Journal of Social Policy and the Law 103 (Fall 1999) |
The Supreme Court has received a great deal of criticism in recent years for its decisions concerning the religious liberty of minority groups, and many of those critiques have focused specifically on the rights of Indians. Decisions like Employment Division v. Smith, involving the religious use of peyote, and Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery... |
1999 |
| David C. Bricker |
A Kantian Argument for Native American Cultural Survival |
76 University of Detroit Mercy Law Review 789 (Spring 1999) |
It is typical for people to judge the degree of respect they are accorded by others in terms of the way their cultural membership is treated. For example, a Sikh-American who experiences the glares of his work group directed toward his turban concludes that the group does not respect him. On the other hand, an Iraqi-American woman believes that she... |
1999 |
| Autumn Fox |
A Practical Guide to the Indian Child Welfare Act |
68-FEB Journal of the Kansas Bar Association 16 (February, 1999) |
When the United States government created a trust relationship with Indian tribes in this country, it incurred a responsibility. Through the years, that responsibility gave way to Congress' desire to promote the self-determination of tribes. In passing the Indian Child Welfare Act, the government extended that concept to preserving tribes' most... |
1999 |
| |
A Public Accommodations Challenge to the Use of Indian Team Names and Mascots in Professional Sports |
112 Harvard Law Review 904 (February, 1999) |
Five professional sports teams currently have American Indian names and mascots: the Atlanta Braves, Chicago Blackhawks, Cleveland Indians, Kansas City Chiefs, and Washington Redskins. The accompanying mascots, such as the Cleveland Indians' Chief Wahoo, represent stereotypical and racist depictions of American Indians. In addition, team mascots,... |
1999 |
| David M. LaSpaluto |
A 'Strikingly Anomalous,' 'Anachronistic Fiction': Off-reservation Sovereign Immunity for Indian Tribal Commercial Enterprises |
36 San Diego Law Review 743 (Summer 1999) |
I. Introduction. 744 II. Kiowa and Its Recent Legacy. 749 A. The Case, Its Holding, and Its Effects. 749 B. The Nature of the Sovereign Immunity at Issue Here: Off-Reservation, Commercial Activity. 752 C. Trouble Areas: Places that This Will Reach. 754 D. How Far Will It Go? Dixon, Ex parte Young, and Waiver as Possible Limitations. 757 III. The... |
1999 |
| David M. LaSpaluto |
A 'STRIKINGLY ANOMALOUS,' 'ANACHRONISTIC FICTION': OFF-RESERVATION SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY FOR INDIAN TRIBAL COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES |
36 San Diego Law Review 743 (Summer 1999) |
I. Introduction. 744 II. Kiowa and Its Recent Legacy. 749 A. The Case, Its Holding, and Its Effects. 749 B. The Nature of the Sovereign Immunity at Issue Here: Off-Reservation, Commercial Activity. 752 C. Trouble Areas: Places that This Will Reach. 754 D. How Far Will It Go? Dixon, Ex parte Young, and Waiver as Possible Limitations. 757 III. The... |
1999 |
| Lieutenant Colonel Grant |
American Indian and Alaska Native Policy |
1999-JUL Army Lawyer 44 (July, 1999) |
On 20 October 1998, Secretary of Defense William Cohen signed the Department of Defense's (DOD) American Indian and Alaska Native Policy. The policy was promulgated to carry out President Clinton's mandate, as expressed in his 1998 Executive Order 13084, that federal agencies provide Indian tribes a meaningful and timely opportunity to comment on... |
1999 |
| Raymond Cross |
American Indian Education: the Terror of History and the Nation's Debt to the Indian Peoples |
21 University of Arkansas at Little Rock Law Review 941 (Summer, 1999) |
With an education, you become the White man's equal. Without it you remain his victim.- Crow Chief, Plenty Coups When God wanted to create the world, the conservative angels, with tears in their eyes, shouted to him, Lord, do not destroy chaos'. - Monsieur de Mere American Indian education, like the dismal state of the weather in Mark Twain's... |
1999 |
| Stacy Belisle |
American Indian Law --- Tribal Lands --- an Indian Tribe That Holds Title to Land by Transfer under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act May Not Impose Business Tax When its Land Is Not Indian Country Within the Statutory Definition. Alaska V. Native V |
76 University of Detroit Mercy Law Review 903 (Spring 1999) |
In 1986, Alaska decided to construct a public school on land that belonged to the Venetie Indian Tribe (the Tribe). The Tribe had acquired the land under a provision of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA/the Act). As a result, it held title to the land in fee simple. Under a provision of ANCSA, the Tribe formed a tribal government which... |
1999 |
| Stacy Belisle |
AMERICAN INDIAN LAW --- TRIBAL LANDS --- AN INDIAN TRIBE THAT HOLDS TITLE TO LAND BY TRANSFER UNDER THE ALASKA NATIVE CLAIMS SETTLEMENT ACT MAY NOT IMPOSE BUSINESS TAX WHEN ITS LAND IS NOT INDIAN COUNTRY WITHIN THE STATUTORY DEFINITION. ALASKA V. NATIVE V |
76 University of Detroit Mercy Law Review 903 (Spring 1999) |
In 1986, Alaska decided to construct a public school on land that belonged to the Venetie Indian Tribe (the Tribe). The Tribe had acquired the land under a provision of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA/the Act). As a result, it held title to the land in fee simple. Under a provision of ANCSA, the Tribe formed a tribal government which... |
1999 |
| Ryan T. Koczara |
American Indian Law--sovereign Immunity--indian Tribes Enjoy Sovereign Immunity from Suits on Contracts, Whether Those Contracts Involve Governmental or Commercial Activities and Whether They Were Made on or off a Reservation. Kiowa Tribe V. Manufacturing |
76 University of Detroit Mercy Law Review 927 (Spring 1999) |
The Supreme Court has consistently held that tribal sovereign immunity is a barrier to suits against Indian tribes, without distinguishing whether the transactions upon which such suits are based occurred on or off of Indian reservations. Kiowa Tribe v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc., presented the Supreme Court a ripe opportunity to confine... |
1999 |
| |
American Indian Whaling Rights |
93 American Journal of International Law 663 (July, 1999) |
In 1982, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) imposed a moratorium on all commercial whaling. The United States did not object. So long as the moratorium continues, the only whaling permitted for states who have not objected is aboriginal whaling or whaling for scientific research. The exception for whaling by aborigines, which requires that... |
1999 |
| John Fredericks III |
America's First Nations: the Origins, History and Future of American Indian Sovereignty |
7 Journal of Law & Policy 347 (1999) |
It is often said that Christopher Columbus discovered America. The truth is, the territory now known as the United States was occupied by large groups of indigenous people long before the Europeans reached her shores. If asked, these native people will tell you that they have occupied this land since time immemorial. Indeed, many native tribes... |
1999 |
| By Christopher A. Karns |
Amoco |
1998-99 Preview of United States Supreme Court Cases 418 (4/12/1999) |
The coal-bed methane gas that lies beneath 200,000 acres of the Southern Ute Indian Reservation in Colorado is estimated to be worth $200 million. The Tribe owns the coal beneath these lands, but numerous companies and approximately 20,000 individuals hold interests in the oil and gas estates. The question before the Supreme Court is whether the... |
1999 |
| |
Amoco Production Company |
1998-99 Preview of United States Supreme Court Cases 52 (7/26/1999) |
Opinion by Justice Kennedy Dissent by Justice Ginsburg See ABA Preview 418 (April 12, 1999) for case analysis. DECISION: A divided Supreme Court held that the reservation of coal pursuant to the Coal Land Acts of 1909 and 1910 does not include gas found within the coal formation, commonly referred to as coalbed methane gas (CBM gas). The Coal... |
1999 |
| Gerald L. “Jerry” Brown, ; Reeve Love, ; and Bradley Scott |
An Historical Overview of Indian Education and Four Generations of Desegregation |
2 Journal of Gender, Race and Justice 407 (Spring 1999) |
From time immemorial, indigenous people of this country have established their own educational system in accordance with their cultural ways. Today several hundred Indian nations still exist in the United States. It is important to start with that backdrop in examining the issues discussed in this article. This article will present an historical... |
1999 |
| John Gibeaut |
Another Broken Trust |
85-SEP ABA Journal 40 (September, 1999) |
The case was big, really big, and Kevin Gover knew it. After all, 300,000-plus American Indians just don't come waltzing into court every day alleging that the federal government has lost as much as $10 billion held in trust for them. But it wasn't until after Gover became the assistant secretary for Indian affairs at the Department of the Interior... |
1999 |
| Allison M. Dussias |
Asserting a Traditional Environmental Ethic: Recent Developments in Environmental Regulation Involving Native American Tribes |
33 New England Law Review 653 (Spring, 1999) |
The topic of this symposium asked us to analyze recent trends and developments in environmental law and to think about how we could best present these developments to client nature. This first panel focuses more specifically on the emergence of an environmental ethic and its possible role in environmental law. My teaching experience and scholarly... |
1999 |
| Amy Sender |
Australia's Example of Treatment Towards Native Title: Indigenous People's Land Rights in Australia and the United States |
25 Brooklyn Journal of International Law 521 (1999) |
With the end of the twentieth century quickly approaching, the world's focus has shifted from a capitalist, gain-seeking mentality towards a sympathy and respect for needy and less fortunate humans. Consequently, a global emphasis has been placed on indigenous people and their rights. Remarkably, 1993 was proclaimed the International Year of the... |
1999 |
| Rudolph C. Rÿser, Ph.D. |
Between Indigenous Nations and the State: Self-determination in the Balance |
7 Tulsa Journal of Comparative & International Law 129 (Fall, 1999) |
Along with territorial issues and cultural issues, the principle of self-determination is profoundly influential in the relations between states and between states and Fourth World (indigenous) peoples. Stated simply, the principle of self-determination asserts that it is the right of all peoples to freely choose their social, economic, political... |
1999 |
| A. Dan Tarlock |
Can Cowboys Become Indians? Protecting Western Communities as Endangered Cultural Remnants |
31 Arizona State Law Journal 539 (Summer, 1999) |
[The governor] likes the idea of having a ... cowboy working for him. Said it was the one minority group he hadn't hired enough of in his administration. This article examines and evaluates the claims being asserted by communities stressed by rapid growth that they are entitled to some form of protection as an endangered remnant culture. It... |
1999 |
| David M. Blurton |
Canons of Construction, Stare Decisis and Dependent Indian Communities: a Test of Judicial Integrity |
16 Alaska Law Review 37 (June, 1999) |
This Article discusses the U.S. Supreme Court's failure to incorporate the Federal Indian law canons of construction into its recent decision in Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Gov't Although these canons have factored frequently into the Court's decisions on Indian law issues, and direct that courts treat Indian claims favorably in a... |
1999 |
| Nicholas S. Goldin |
Casting a New Light on Tribal Casino Gaming: Why Congress Should Curtail the Scope of High Stakes Indian Gaming |
84 Cornell Law Review 798 (March, 1999) |
Introduction. 799 I. Where We Have Been and Where We Are: A Brief Overview of the History of Gambling in the United States. 805 II. How We Got Here: Plotting the Course of the Recent Casino Gambling Explosion. 808 A. A History of Turbulent Federal-Tribal Relations. 808 B. The Development of Gaming on Indian Reservations. 810 C. Raising the Stakes:... |
1999 |
| Andrew Nelson |
Ciotti: Preserving Federal Protection of Indian Reserved Water Rights in Montana |
20 Public Land & Resources Law Review 131 (1999) |
Distance, space, affects people as surely as it has bred keen eyesight into pronghorn antelope. And what makes that western space and distance? The same condition that enforces mobility on all adapted creatures, and tolerates only small or temporary concentrations of human or other life. Aridity. As Wallace Stegner suggests, the effect of aridity... |
1999 |
| Gregory E. Lang |
Competitive Sourcing: the Native American Preference |
35-FALL Procurement Lawyer Law. 3 (Fall, 1999) |
Competitive sourcing per Office of Management and Budget Circular A-76 has become quite common in the federal government, particularly within the Department of Defense. Like standard procurements, socioeconomic programs exist that give certain groups a preferential procurement status. The focus of this paper is the Native American procurement... |
1999 |
| Frank Pommersheim |
Coyote Paradox: Some Indian Law Reflections from the Edge of the Prairie |
31 Arizona State Law Journal 439 (Summer, 1999) |
The field of Indian law has been beset from its very beginnings by a recurring set of paradoxes, inconsistencies, and divided national and tribal objectives. Prime themes include colonialism astride constitutional democracy, pluralism pitted against assimilation and termination, and tribal sovereignty bristling against trust dependence and state... |
1999 |
| Dean B. Suagee |
Cruel Irony in the Quest of an Alaska Native Tribe for Self-determination |
13-WTR Natural Resources & Environment 495 (Winter, 1999) |
North of the Arctic Circle, south of the Brooks Range, lies the homeland of the Venetie Tribe of Neets'aii Gwich'in Indians, an Athabascan people. That territory has been their homeland for thousands of years. Throughout most of the twentieth century, the Neets'aii have struggled to establish a relationship with the United States of America that... |
1999 |
| Robert B. Porter |
Decolonizing Indigenous Governance: Observations on Restoring Greater Faith and Legitimacy in the Government of the Seneca Nation |
8-WTR Kansas Journal of Law & Public Policy 97 (Winter 1999) |
Before the White Man arrived in our lands, we Indigenous people had our own ways of governing our societies. Unfortunately, the first explorers, missionaries, and settlers encountered by our ancestors had a difficult time observing, much less understanding, these forms and methods of government. After all, there were no written laws, courts, or... |
1999 |
| Judith V. Royster |
Decontextualizing Federal Indian Law: the Supreme Court's 1997-98 Term |
34 Tulsa Law Journal 329 (Winter, 1999) |
Federal Indian law is an extraordinarily complex area of the law. Rooted in colonialism, it is a sometimes inconsistent welter of treaties, statutes, common law, constitutional law, and tribal law set against the shifts and turns of federal Indian policy. It cannot be understood apart from the history of federal-tribal relations. Indian law is,... |
1999 |
| Alisa Cook Lauer 2000 |
DISPELLING THE CONSTITUTIONAL CREATION MYTH OF TRIBAL SOVEREIGNTY, UNITED STATES V. WEASELHEAD |
78 Nebraska Law Review 162 (1999) |
Long ago There were no Stars, no moon, no sun. There was only darkness and water. A raft floated on the water, and on the raft sat a turtle. Then from the sky, a spirit came down and sat on the raft. Who are you? asked turtle. Where do you come from? I came from above, answered the spirit. Can you create some land for us? asked turtle. We... |
1999 |
| Victoria Verbyla Sutton |
DIVERGENT BUT CO-EXISTENT LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND TRIBAL GOVERNMENTS UNDER THE SAME CONSTITUTION |
31 Urban Lawyer 47 (Winter, 1999) |
This article examines legal issues facing local governments and raises the question of how American Indian tribal government handles such issues. A comparative analysis follows, including the juxtaposition of local government rules with American Indian law. A general conclusion completes the survey. Although the issues are the same or similar,... |
1999 |
| Dean B. Suagee , John P. Lowndes |
Due Process and Public Participation in Tribal Environmental Programs |
13 Tulane Environmental Law Journal L.J. 1 (December, 1999) |
I. Introduction. 3 II. Why Public Participation and Due Process Matter. 5 A. Rights and Interests of Tribal Members. 6 B. Rights and Interests of Non-Indians. 6 C. Avoiding Divestiture of Sovereignty by Congress and the Courts. 7 D. Public Perceptions of Tribal Government. 9 III. Sources of Law for Due Process Before Tribal Agencies. 9 A. Indian... |
1999 |
| Robert R.M. Verchick |
Dust Bowl Blues: Saving and Sharing the Ogallala Aquifer |
14 Journal of Environmental Law & Litigation 13 (1999) |
Today, I want to talk to you about the Ogallala Aquifer in the American Great Plains. There are two things that I want you to know. First, the Ogallala Aquifer is the largest aquifer in North America and supports one-fifth of all agriculture in the United States. So even if the aquifer lies outside your region, this resource affects you. Second, by... |
1999 |
| |
E. Native American Treaties |
113 Harvard Law Review 389 (November, 1999) |
In 1837, twelve Chippewa bands signed a treaty with the United States that ceded land in what are now Wisconsin and Minnesota in exchange for money and goods. The treaty guaranteed to the Chippewa the privilege of hunting, fishing, and gathering the wild rice on ceded lands during the pleasure of the President of the United States. Three events... |
1999 |